[130][164] In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. [128] Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order,[80] but most Chadic languages have subject-verb-object word order. Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, which is the fourth-largest number of native speakers of any language family (after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and NigerCongo). 28 July 1999. [193][194], Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. [54] However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. sing. [118], Attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. [6] [121] In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating lexical roots in a few cases. [74], There is no consensus on when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. For other uses, see, Distribution of the Afro-Asiatic languages, Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology, Common derivational and morphological processes, Consonantal root structures and verbal forms, Some scholars argue that on the basis of Coptic that Egyptian had neither "emphatic consonants" nor a phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants. as EL). innovation: addition of *w inchoative to stem), (root #866 with *-u- tr. North of the Sahara and the Ethiopian mountains are the Afro-Asiatic languages. 'be, exist'), (root seen also in #983 + probably *s caus. infix), fruit, seeds, foliage, plant growth in general, (Ch., Sem. Pre-Proto-Semitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1989) Appendix 2. Abstract The paper is a new contribution to revealing the Afro-Asiatic heritage in the lexicon of the Angas-Sura group of Chadic languages by means of interbranch comparison using a.o. suff. [171][172] In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see Pronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. [174] The Semitic genitive case in -i is probably related to "nisba" adjective derivation. C. [131] This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. It typically comprises Kartvelian, Indo-European, and Uralic languages; some languages from the disputed Altaic family; the Afroasiatic languages spoken in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East; and the Dravidian languages of the Indian Subcontinent (sometimes also Elamo-Dravidian, which connects India and the innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. . [198] Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars". [66] Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "Negroid" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "Caucasian" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. Ayere-Ahan The following list of Proto-Afroasiatic reconstructions is from Ehret (1995). Kunama p-Gurunsi stretching out of arms), (Sem, Eg., Ch., Cush, innovation: 'set on top of' > 'cover'), (Sem., Eg. [29] The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. Proto-Afro-Asiatic: *abaw/y- Meaning: a k. of plant Semitic: *abVw- 'reed, papyrus' Egyptian: wb 'root', cf. [188] Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers "one," "two," and "five" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with "five" often based on a word meaning "hand". 1 Afro-Asiatic Language Family. [10][11], Friedrich Mller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, published in 1876. p-Surmic *-kep-to cease, no longer function: 327. The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic subregions of Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara/Sahel. ; PC variant *damn-), (Ch., Eg., Sem. p-Kongo At the same time, linguistic similarities such as vowel changes help show relationships among languages. [40] Scholars have proposed locations both in the Middle East and in Africa. (abbrev. [119] Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova instead proposed a six vowel system with a, e, o, i, ([y]), and u. [18][11], The alternative name "Lisramic" is based on the AA root *lis- ("tongue") and the Egyptian word rm ("person"). [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. [77][127] Berber, and Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. Due to isolation, Icelandic has changed the least and is most similar to Old Norse, and therefore probably also to Proto-Germanic. suff. [75] Proponents of an African origin of Afroasiatic assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic African hunter-gatherers,[76] arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. The Semitic line of Afro-Asiatic has the most language sub-sets. Atlantic (Guinea) of #724 by adding *-(a)C- where C = preceding stem-final C, is implied in Eg. Omotic is the most controversial member of Afro-Asiatic. [82] Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. Meredith Holt innovation: addition of *t n. *kns-loins: 326. In Afro-Asiatic languages: Origins originated is referred to as Proto-Afro-Asiatic. xvii + 557. PSom-III. in *n, as also in #210), (Sem., Eg. [99], The majority of AA languages are tonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. p-Mumuye [20], The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. Root Structure Patterning in Proto . However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is incidental. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is schwa. n. pref. Natioro innovation: 'knee'; Berber *afud < *puuz), to be finished, come to an end, be used up, (Sem., Cush. [54][73][9] The reluctance of some scholars to recognize Chadic as a member of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic,[130][166] where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. Kujarge Theodor Benfy found that Egyptian and Semitic languages were similar in 1844, and he classified them under the Semito-Hamitic language family. p-Nubian The main quality of Afro-Asiatic is that it "cuts across usually perceived racial boundaries" (Dalby, p.6). Their range extended from the Benue Trough and Lake Chad, to the Nile Valley, the Indus Valley, and Southern Europe during the African Aqualithic Period. Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushitic are likely even older. [81] Christopher Ehret, O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman also argue that archaeology does not indicate a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. [121] For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic. crcst test prep; crcst free test questions; paid test; crcst exam prep notes; subscribe The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6-9. E-V13. [29] Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be endangered of going extinct. Additional Proposed PAA Roots; Appendix 4. In this interpretation, a contrast existed between. Voegelin, C.F. The name Hamitic originates from Ham, one of the sons of Noah. Temein New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1996. Allan Bomhard's own reconstructions of Proto-Afroasiatic roots (and phonology) seem to be biased toward Proto-Indo-European and Nostratic roots . [189] In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic. suff. [68] In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that a group of languages classified as Cushitic by Greenberg were in fact an independent "Omotic" language family, a proposal that has been widely accepted but remains controversial. [40] The latest possible date for the existence of Proto-Afroasiatic is c. 4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are first attested; however, the languages must have diverged and evolved for some time before this. Proto-Afroasiatic English gloss Notes 1. p-Lakka [183][184] In the Chadic family alone, there are two different roots for "two,"[185] and Berber and Semitic likewise have two different branch-internal roots for "two". ref. One hypothesis places it in the Levant, as the language of the Natufian hunter-gatherers who were the first to adopt a farming lifestyle more than 10,000 years ago. [121] This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,[153] and is particularly noticeable in the triliteral Semitic verb. V. V. ven. [127], Afroasiatic Languages use the processes of reduplication and gemination (which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. [16] Several issues with the label "Hamito-Semitic" have led to its decline in use by later scholars. [163] Three derivational prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and *n- 'passive'. Fig. suff. The Subclassification of Afroasiatic (Afrasian) Appendix 1. Ongota innovation: narrowing of meaning to particular kind of joining, by sewing), to split in two, split one from the other, (proposed source: #502, with regular PAA * > PBA *n; Eg., Berber, Sem. p-Nupoid You guys might disagree with the results form the Shum Laka paper but don't distort their own interpretations of their findings. [103], A form of long-distance consonant assimilation known as consonant harmony is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization, palatalization, and labialization. Archaeology and the study of oral traditions helps linguists find connections between language families. [97] All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. There are approximately 400 Afroasiatic languages, either living or recorded but extinct. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". Looking at present languages and going backward helps us know what languages were like anciently (Atlas, p.75). In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. Ekoid The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. [34] The Cushitic family is traditionally spit into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. [128] In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns. ), (root #695 + *f iter.? Since there is written data available from this region, it is easier to reconstruct ancient roots and find common characteristics (ELL, p.51). [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. In An Encyclopedia of Language, Omotic is listed as a sub-set of Cushitic, and Andrew Dalby writes the Egyptian division as "Egyptian-Coptic," even though Coptic is considered to be a sub-set of Egyptian. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. ), (root *-sa-, seen also in #539 preceding, + *w inchoative), (2nd root shape *-caab- seen in PEC v. and Banna (SOm) 'white,' is not as yet satisfactorily accounted for), indefinite pronoun stem (one, someone, somebody), (stem + * iter. common genetic origin of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic differ considerably from the assumptions made in other works on . p-Edoid innovation: narrowing of meaning to tr. p-Potou-Akanic p-N. Jos Cognate Dictionary Studies in Baltic and Indo-European Linguistics The Roots of Hinduism Latin - nus, -na, -nus and -neus Tracing the Indo-Europeans Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo- . p-Igboid [83], A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic,[78] most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. Bijogo Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left Boreafrasian, the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). [32] It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers. envisaged a tome citing several hundred reconstructed roots; he did manage, however, to publish over a hundred (53 proto-roots were published, for example, in Hodge 1981). [40] Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. Report Save. shared innovation: *isin-/*usun- 'they' (originally fem./masc. suff. These classifications of language sub-sets vary according to different texts. suff. [48] Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, Western Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa. Because i notice in some cases, they seem to have vowels shifting around quite a bit, akin to the trilateral root systems of the semitic languages. Bomhard postulates that from Proto-Afroasiatic (henceforth PAA), Chadic was the first to break off. [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. 2.10. Amdang p-Oti-Volta (p-E. Oti-Voltap-C. Oti-Volta) shared innovation: 'move, take' > 'take hold of'), (Cush., Ch., Eg., Sem. [196] Additionally, because Egyptian is written without vowels before the Coptic period, its use for comparative purposes often relies on vocalic reconstructions that themselves depend on comparisons with other Afroasiatic languages. Gumuz shared innovation: *als-/*ils- 'tongue': *a-/*i-attrib. New York: Elsevier, 1977. If so, semantics are unclear), (pl. [79], An African origin has broad scholarly support,[75] and is favored by most linguists on the basis of the linguistic data. [89] In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal or fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian . Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic are also spoken north of the Sahara so it must be assumed that the speakers of these "dialects" migrated north likewise, though perhaps separately from the Boreafrasian speakers (Dalby, p.6). p-North Bauchi Whether this proto-language is ancestral to Berber and Semitic only, or also to other branches of Afroasiatic, still remains to be established. [186] Within the Semitic language family, Lipiski counts four different roots meaning "one".
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